Widespread support for a global species list with a formal governance system.

Taxonomic data are a scientific common. Unlike nomenclature, which has strong governance institutions, there are currently no generally accepted governance institutions for the compilation of taxonomic data into an accepted global list. This gap results in challenges for conservation, ecological research, policymaking, international trade, and other areas of scientific and societal importance. Consensus on a global list and its management requires effective governance and standards, including agreed mechanisms for choosing among competing taxonomies and partial lists. However, governance frameworks are currently lacking, and a call for governance in 2017 generated critical responses. Any governance system to which compliance is voluntary requires a high level of legitimacy and credibility among those by and for whom it is created. Legitimacy and credibility, in turn, require adequate and credible consultation. Here, we report on the results of a global survey of taxonomists, scientists from other disciplines, and users of taxonomy designed to assess views and test ideas for a new system of taxonomic list governance. We found a surprisingly high degree of agreement on the need for a global list of accepted species and their names, and consistent views on what such a list should provide to users and how it should be governed. The survey suggests that consensus on a mechanism to create, manage, and govern a single widely accepted list of all the world's species is achievable. This finding was unexpected given past controversies about the merits of list governance.

Discovery of a New Lichtheimia (Lichtheimiaceae, Mucorales) from Invertebrate Niche and Its Phylogenetic Status and Physiological Characteristics.

Species of Lichtheimia are important opportunistic fungal pathogens in the order Mucorales that are isolated from various sources such as soil, indoor air, food products, feces, and decaying vegetables. In recent years, species of Lichtheimia have become an emerging causative agent of invasive mucormycosis. In Europe and USA, Lichtheimia are the second and third most common causal fungus of mucormycosis, respectively. Thus, the aim of this study was to survey the diversity of species of Lichtheimia hidden in poorly studied hosts, such as invertebrates, in Korea. Eight Lichtheimia strains were isolated from invertebrate samples. Based on morphology, physiology, and phylogenetic analyses of ITS and LSU rDNA sequence data, the strains were identified as L. hyalospora, L. ornata, L. ramosa, and a novel species, L. koreana sp. nov. Lichtheimia koreana is characterized by a variable columellae, sporangiophores arising solitarily or up to three at one place from stolons, and slow growth on MEA and PDA at all temperatures tested. The new species grows best at 30 and 35 °C and has a maximum growth temperature of 40 °C. Detailed descriptions, illustrations, and a phylogenetic tree are provided.

Fungal names: a comprehensive nomenclatural repository and knowledge base for fungal taxonomy.

Fungal taxonomy is a complex and rapidly changing subject, which makes proper naming of fungi challenging for taxonomists. A registration platform with a standardized and information-integrated database is a powerful tool for efficient research on fungal taxonomy. Fungal Names (FN, https://nmdc.cn/fungalnames/; launched in 2011) is one of the three official fungal nomenclatural repositories authorized by the International Nomenclature Committee for Fungi (NCF). Currently, FN includes >567 000 taxon names from >10 000 related journals and books published since 1596 and covers >147 000 collection records of type specimens/illustrations from >5000 preserving agencies. FN is also a knowledge base that integrates nomenclature information with specimens, culture collections and herbaria/fungaria, publications and taxonomists, and represents a summary of the history and recent advances in fungal taxonomy. Published fungal names are categorized based on well-accepted nomenclature rules and can be readily searched with different keywords and strategies. In combination with a standardized name checking tool and a sequence alignment-based identification package, FN makes the registration and typification of nomenclatural novelties of fungi convenient and accurate.

Fungal diversity notes 1387-1511: taxonomic and phylogenetic contributions on genera and species of fungal taxa.

This article is the 13th contribution in the Fungal Diversity Notes series, wherein 125 taxa from four phyla, ten classes, 31 orders, 69 families, 92 genera and three genera incertae sedis are treated, demonstrating worldwide and geographic distribution. Fungal taxa described and illustrated in the present study include three new genera, 69 new species, one new combination, one reference specimen and 51 new records on new hosts and new geographical distributions. Three new genera, Cylindrotorula (Torulaceae), Scolecoleotia (Leotiales genus incertae sedis) and Xenovaginatispora (Lindomycetaceae) are introduced based on distinct phylogenetic lineages and unique morphologies. Newly described species are Aspergillus lannaensis, Cercophora dulciaquae, Cladophialophora aquatica, Coprinellus punjabensis, Cortinarius alutarius, C. mammillatus, C. quercoflocculosus, Coryneum fagi, Cruentomycena uttarakhandina, Cryptocoryneum rosae, Cyathus uniperidiolus, Cylindrotorula indica, Diaporthe chamaeropicola, Didymella azollae, Diplodia alanphillipsii, Dothiora coronicola, Efibula rodriguezarmasiae, Erysiphe salicicola, Fusarium queenslandicum, Geastrum gorgonicum, G. hansagiense, Helicosporium sexualis, Helminthosporium chiangraiensis, Hongkongmyces kokensis, Hydrophilomyces hydraenae, Hygrocybe boertmannii, Hyphoderma australosetigerum, Hyphodontia yunnanensis, Khaleijomyces umikazeana, Laboulbenia divisa, Laboulbenia triarthronis, Laccaria populina, Lactarius pallidozonarius, Lepidosphaeria strobelii, Longipedicellata megafusiformis, Lophiotrema lincangensis, Marasmius benghalensis, M. jinfoshanensis, M. subtropicus, Mariannaea camelliae, Melanographium smilaxii, Microbotryum polycnemoides, Mimeomyces digitatus, Minutisphaera thailandensis, Mortierella solitaria, Mucor harpali, Nigrograna jinghongensis, Odontia huanrenensis, O. parvispina, Paraconiothyrium ajrekarii, Parafuscosporella niloticus, Phaeocytostroma yomensis, Phaeoisaria synnematicus, Phanerochaete hainanensis, Pleopunctum thailandicum, Pleurotheciella dimorphospora, Pseudochaetosphaeronema chiangraiense, Pseudodactylaria albicolonia, Rhexoacrodictys nigrospora, Russula paravioleipes, Scolecoleotia eriocamporesi, Seriascoma honghense, Synandromyces makranczyi, Thyridaria aureobrunnea, Torula lancangjiangensis, Tubeufia longihelicospora, Wicklowia fusiformispora, Xenovaginatispora phichaiensis and Xylaria apiospora. One new combination, Pseudobactrodesmium stilboideus is proposed. A reference specimen of Comoclathris permunda is designated. New host or distribution records are provided for Acrocalymma fici, Aliquandostipite khaoyaiensis, Camarosporidiella laburni, Canalisporium caribense, Chaetoscutula juniperi, Chlorophyllum demangei, C. globosum, C. hortense, Cladophialophora abundans, Dendryphion hydei, Diaporthe foeniculina, D. pseudophoenicicola, D. pyracanthae, Dictyosporium pandanicola, Dyfrolomyces distoseptatus, Ernakulamia tanakae, Eutypa flavovirens, E. lata, Favolus septatus, Fusarium atrovinosum, F. clavum, Helicosporium luteosporum, Hermatomyces nabanheensis, Hermatomyces sphaericoides, Longipedicellata aquatica, Lophiostoma caudata, L. clematidis-vitalbae, Lophiotrema hydei, L. neoarundinaria, Marasmiellus palmivorus, Megacapitula villosa, Micropsalliota globocystis, M. gracilis, Montagnula thailandica, Neohelicosporium irregulare, N. parisporum, Paradictyoarthrinium diffractum, Phaeoisaria aquatica, Poaceascoma taiwanense, Saproamanita manicata, Spegazzinia camelliae, Submersispora variabilis, Thyronectria caudata, T. mackenziei, Tubeufia chiangmaiensis, T. roseohelicospora, Vaginatispora nypae, Wicklowia submersa, Xanthagaricus necopinatus and Xylaria haemorrhoidalis. The data presented herein are based on morphological examination of fresh specimens, coupled with analysis of phylogenetic sequence data to better integrate taxa into appropriate taxonomic ranks and infer their evolutionary relationships.

Early-diverging fungal phyla: taxonomy, species concept, ecology, distribution, anthropogenic impact, and novel phylogenetic proposals.

The increasing number of new fungal species described from all over the world along with the use of genetics to define taxa, has dramatically changed the classification system of early-diverging fungi over the past several decades. The number of phyla established for non-Dikarya fungi has increased from 2 to 17. However, to date, both the classification and phylogeny of the basal fungi are still unresolved. In this article, we review the recent taxonomy of the basal fungi and re-evaluate the relationships among early-diverging lineages of fungal phyla. We also provide information on the ecology and distribution in Mucoromycota and highlight the impact of chytrids on amphibian populations. Species concepts in Chytridiomycota, Aphelidiomycota, Rozellomycota, Neocallimastigomycota are discussed in this paper. To preserve the current application of the genus Nephridiophaga (Chytridiomycota: Nephridiophagales), a new type species, Nephridiophaga blattellae, is proposed.

Discovery and Extrolite Production of Three New Species of Talaromyces Belonging to Sections Helici and Purpurei from Freshwater in Korea.

Three novel fungal species, Talaromyces gwangjuensis, T. koreana, and T. teleomorpha were found in Korea during an investigation of fungi in freshwater. The new species are described here using morphological characters, a multi-gene phylogenetic analysis of the ITS, BenA, CaM, RPB2 regions, and extrolite data. Talaromyces gwangjuensis is characterized by restricted growth on CYA, YES, monoverticillate and biverticillate conidiophores, and globose smooth-walled conidia. Talaromyces koreana is characterized by fast growth on MEA, biverticillate conidiophores, or sometimes with additional branches and the production of acid on CREA. Talaromyces teleomorpha is characterized by producing creamish-white or yellow ascomata on OA and MEA, restricted growth on CREA, and no asexual morph observed in the culture. A phylogenetic analysis of the ITS, BenA, CaM, and RPB2 sequences showed that the three new taxa form distinct monophyletic clades. Detailed descriptions, illustrations, and phylogenetic trees are provided.

Discovery of Novel Backusella (Backusellaceae, Mucorales) Isolated from Invertebrates and Toads in Cheongyang, Korea.

Three novel fungal species, Backusella chlamydospora sp. nov., B. koreana sp. nov., and B. thermophila sp. nov., as well as two new records, B. oblongielliptica and B. oblongispora, were found in Cheongyang, Korea, during an investigation of fungal species from invertebrates and toads. All species are described here using morphological characters and sequence data from internal transcribed spacer sequences of ribosomal DNA and large subunit of the ribosomal DNA. Backusella chlamydospora is different from other Backusella species by producing chlamydospores. Backusella koreana can be distinguished from other Backusella species by producing abundant yeast-like cells. Backusella thermophila is characterized by a variable (subglobose to oblong, applanate to oval, conical and ellipsoidal to pyriform) columellae and grows well at 37 °C. Multigene phylogenetic analyses of the combined ITS and LSU rDNA sequences data generated from maximum likelihood and MrBayes analyses indicate that B. chlamydospora, B. koreana, and B. thermophila form distinct lineages in the family Backusellaceae. Detailed descriptions, illustrations, phylogenetic tree, and taxonomic key to the Backusella species present in Korea are provided.

How to publish a new fungal species, or name, version 3.0.

It is now a decade since The International Commission on the Taxonomy of Fungi (ICTF) produced an overview of requirements and best practices for describing a new fungal species. In the meantime the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp) has changed from its former name (the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature) and introduced new formal requirements for valid publication of species scientific names, including the separation of provisions specific to Fungi and organisms treated as fungi in a new Chapter F. Equally transformative have been changes in the data collection, data dissemination, and analytical tools available to mycologists. This paper provides an updated and expanded discussion of current publication requirements along with best practices for the description of new fungal species and publication of new names and for improving accessibility of their associated metadata that have developed over the last 10 years. Additionally, we provide: (1) model papers for different fungal groups and circumstances; (2) a checklist to simplify meeting (i) the requirements of the ICNafp to ensure the effective, valid and legitimate publication of names of new taxa, and (ii) minimally accepted standards for description; and, (3) templates for preparing standardized species descriptions.

Fungal taxonomy and sequence-based nomenclature.

The identification and proper naming of microfungi, in particular plant, animal and human pathogens, remains challenging. Molecular identification is becoming the default approach for many fungal groups, and environmental metabarcoding is contributing an increasing amount of sequence data documenting fungal diversity on a global scale. This includes lineages represented only by sequence data. At present, these taxa cannot be formally described under the current nomenclature rules. By considering approaches used in bacterial taxonomy, we propose solutions for the nomenclature of taxa known only from sequences to facilitate consistent reporting and communication in the literature and public sequence repositories.

Reviewing the world's edible mushroom species: A new evidence-based classification system.

Wild mushrooms are a vital source of income and nutrition for many poor communities and of value to recreational foragers. Literature relating to the edibility of mushroom species continues to expand, driven by an increasing demand for wild mushrooms, a wider interest in foraging, and the study of traditional foods. Although numerous case reports have been published on edible mushrooms, doubt and confusion persist regarding which species are safe and suitable to consume. Case reports often differ, and the evidence supporting the stated properties of mushrooms can be incomplete or ambiguous. The need for greater clarity on edible species is further underlined by increases in mushroom-related poisonings. We propose a system for categorizing mushroom species and assigning a final edibility status. Using this system, we reviewed 2,786 mushroom species from 99 countries, accessing 9,783 case reports, from over 1,100 sources. We identified 2,189 edible species, of which 2,006 can be consumed safely, and a further 183 species which required some form of pretreatment prior to safe consumption or were associated with allergic reactions by some. We identified 471 species of uncertain edibility because of missing or incomplete evidence of consumption, and 76 unconfirmed species because of unresolved, differing opinions on edibility and toxicity. This is the most comprehensive list of edible mushrooms available to date, demonstrating the huge number of mushrooms species consumed. Our review highlights the need for further information on uncertain and clash species, and the need to present evidence in a clear, unambiguous, and consistent manner.

Unambiguous identification of fungi: where do we stand and how accurate and precise is fungal DNA barcoding?

True fungi (Fungi) and fungus-like organisms (e.g. Mycetozoa, Oomycota) constitute the second largest group of organisms based on global richness estimates, with around 3 million predicted species. Compared to plants and animals, fungi have simple body plans with often morphologically and ecologically obscure structures. This poses challenges for accurate and precise identifications. Here we provide a conceptual framework for the identification of fungi, encouraging the approach of integrative (polyphasic) taxonomy for species delimitation, i.e. the combination of genealogy (phylogeny), phenotype (including autecology), and reproductive biology (when feasible). This allows objective evaluation of diagnostic characters, either phenotypic or molecular or both. Verification of identifications is crucial but often neglected. Because of clade-specific evolutionary histories, there is currently no single tool for the identification of fungi, although DNA barcoding using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) remains a first diagnosis, particularly in metabarcoding studies. Secondary DNA barcodes are increasingly implemented for groups where ITS does not provide sufficient precision. Issues of pairwise sequence similarity-based identifications and OTU clustering are discussed, and multiple sequence alignment-based phylogenetic approaches with subsequent verification are recommended as more accurate alternatives. In metabarcoding approaches, the trade-off between speed and accuracy and precision of molecular identifications must be carefully considered. Intragenomic variation of the ITS and other barcoding markers should be properly documented, as phylotype diversity is not necessarily a proxy of species richness. Important strategies to improve molecular identification of fungi are: (1) broadly document intraspecific and intragenomic variation of barcoding markers; (2) substantially expand sequence repositories, focusing on undersampled clades and missing taxa; (3) improve curation of sequence labels in primary repositories and substantially increase the number of sequences based on verified material; (4) link sequence data to digital information of voucher specimens including imagery. In parallel, technological improvements to genome sequencing offer promising alternatives to DNA barcoding in the future. Despite the prevalence of DNA-based fungal taxonomy, phenotype-based approaches remain an important strategy to catalog the global diversity of fungi and establish initial species hypotheses.

On the Typification of Ganoderma sichuanense (Agaricomycetes)-the Widely Cultivated Lingzhi Medicinal Mushroom.

The well-known and widely cultivated lingzhi has had a significant impact on Chinese culture and is now an important fungal crop providing medicinal benefits to human health and economic value to social development within China and around the world. The European mushroom name, Ganoderma lucidum, has been misapplied to this species for over 100 years until recently reidentified as G. sichuanense. Soon after this, a new species name, G. lingzhi, was also proposed for the fungus because of an unusual internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequence purportedly of the holotype of G. sichuanense. This extraordinary ITS sequence, which apparently belongs to another species, created an inconsistency between morphological characteristics and molecular data of the holotype making it "demonstrably ambiguous"; this led to an epitypification to support the holotype for the precise application of the name, according to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants. However, arguments concerning the names G. sichuanense and G. lingzhi are still heating up, including attempts to reject the epitype of G. sichuanense. To clarify the confusion, the typification of G. sichuanense is reviewed here to demonstrate that the epitype of G. sichuanense was appropriately designated for the purpose to support the holotype of the name, the fact that both G. sichuanense and G. lingzhi are conspecific, and that the name G. lingzhi was based on the unwarranted ITS sequence claimed to be of the holotype of G. sichuanense. Suggestions are made for this case to make a way forward, especially re-examination of relevant fungarium collections to reach a consensus to stabilize the use of the name.

European mushroom assemblages are darker in cold climates.

Thermal melanism theory states that dark-colored ectotherm organisms are at an advantage at low temperature due to increased warming. This theory is generally supported for ectotherm animals, however, the function of colors in the fungal kingdom is largely unknown. Here, we test whether the color lightness of mushroom assemblages is related to climate using a dataset of 3.2 million observations of 3,054 species across Europe. Consistent with the thermal melanism theory, mushroom assemblages are significantly darker in areas with cold climates. We further show differences in color phenotype between fungal lifestyles and a lifestyle differentiated response to seasonality. These results indicate a more complex ecological role of mushroom colors and suggest functions beyond thermal adaption. Because fungi play a crucial role in terrestrial carbon and nutrient cycles, understanding the links between the thermal environment, functional coloration and species' geographical distributions will be critical in predicting ecosystem responses to global warming.

Open-source data reveal how collections-based fungal diversity is sensitive to global change.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Fungal diversity (richness) trends at large scales are in urgent need of investigation, especially through novel situations that combine long-term observational with environmental and remotely sensed open-source data. METHODS: We modeled fungal richness, with collections-based records of saprotrophic (decaying) and ectomycorrhizal (plant mutualistic) fungi, using an array of environmental variables across geographical gradients from northern to central Europe. Temporal differences in covariables granted insight into the impacts of the shorter- versus longer-term environment on fungal richness. RESULTS: Fungal richness varied significantly across different land-use types, with highest richness in forests and lowest in urban areas. Latitudinal trends supported a unimodal pattern in diversity across Europe. Temperature, both annual mean and range, was positively correlated with richness, indicating the importance of seasonality in increasing richness amounts. Precipitation seasonality notably affected saprotrophic fungal diversity (a unimodal relationship), as did daily precipitation of the collection day (negatively correlated). Ectomycorrhizal fungal richness differed from that of saprotrophs by being positively associated with tree species richness. DISCUSSION: Our results demonstrate that fungal richness is strongly correlated with land use and climate conditions, especially concerning seasonality, and that ongoing global change processes will affect fungal richness patterns at large scales.

Protax-fungi: a web-based tool for probabilistic taxonomic placement of fungal internal transcribed spacer sequences.

Incompleteness of reference sequence databases and unresolved taxonomic relationships complicates taxonomic placement of fungal sequences. We developed Protax-fungi, a general tool for taxonomic placement of fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, and implemented it into the PlutoF platform of the UNITE database for molecular identification of fungi. With empirical data on root- and wood-associated fungi, Protax-fungi reliably identified (with at least 90% identification probability) the majority of sequences to the order level but only around one-fifth of them to the species level, reflecting the current limited coverage of the databases. Protax-fungi outperformed the Sintax and Rdb classifiers in terms of increased accuracy and decreased calibration error when applied to data on mock communities representing species groups with poor sequence database coverage. We applied Protax-fungi to examine the internal consistencies of the Index Fungorum and UNITE databases. This revealed inconsistencies in the taxonomy database as well as mislabelling and sequence quality problems in the reference database. The according improvements were implemented in both databases. Protax-fungi provides a robust tool for performing statistically reliable identifications of fungi in spite of the incompleteness of extant reference sequence databases and unresolved taxonomic relationships.

Sequence-based nomenclature: a reply to Thines et al. and Zamora et al. and provisions for an amended proposal "from the floor" to allow DNA sequences as types of names.

We reply to two recently published, multi-authored opinion papers by opponents of sequence-based nomenclature, namely Zamora et al. (IMA Fungus9: 167-175,2018) and Thines et al. (IMA Fungus9: 177-183, 2018). While we agree with some of the principal arguments brought forward by these authors, we address misconceptions and demonstrate that some of the presumed evidence presented in these papers has been wrongly interpreted. We disagree that allowing sequences as types would fundamentally alter the nature of types, since a similar nature of abstracted features as type is already allowed in the Code (Art. 40.5), namely an illustration. We also disagree that there is a high risk of introducing artifactual taxa, as this risk can be quantified at well below 5 %, considering the various types of high-throughput sequencing errors. Contrary to apparently widespread misconceptions, sequence-based nomenclature cannot be based on similarity-derived OTUs and their consensus sequences, but must be derived from rigorous, multiple alignment-based phylogenetic methods and quantitative, single-marker species recognition algorithms, using original sequence reads; it is therefore identical in its approach to single-marker studies based on physical types, an approach allowed by the Code. We recognize the limitations of the ITS as a single fungal barcoding marker, but point out that these result in a conservative approach, with "false negatives" surpassing "false positives"; a desirable feature of sequence-based nomenclature. Sequence-based nomenclature does not aim at accurately resolving species, but at naming sequences that represent unknown fungal lineages so that these can serve as a means of communication, so ending the untenable situation of an exponentially growing number of unlabeled fungal sequences that fill online repositories. The risks are outweighed by the gains obtained by a reference library of named sequences spanning the full array of fungal diversity. Finally, we elaborate provisions in addition to our original proposal to amend the Code that would take care of the issues brought forward by opponents to this approach. In particular, taking up the idea of the Candidatus status of invalid, provisional names in prokaryote nomenclature, we propose a compromise that would allow valid publication of voucherless, sequence-based names in a consistent manner, but with the obligate designation as "nom. seq." (nomen sequentiae). Such names would not have priority over specimen- or culture-based names unless either epitypified with a physical type or adopted for protection on the recommendation of a committee of the International Commission on the Taxonomy of Fungi following evaluation based on strict quality control of the underlying studies based on established rules or recommendations.

Explaining European fungal fruiting phenology with climate variability.

Here we assess the impact of geographically dependent (latitude, longitude, and altitude) changes in bioclimatic (temperature, precipitation, and primary productivity) variability on fungal fruiting phenology across Europe. Two main nutritional guilds of fungi, saprotrophic and ectomycorrhizal, were further separated into spring and autumn fruiters. We used a path analysis to investigate how biogeographic patterns in fungal fruiting phenology coincided with seasonal changes in climate and primary production. Across central to northern Europe, mean fruiting varied by approximately 25 d, primarily with latitude. Altitude affected fruiting by up to 30 d, with spring delays and autumnal accelerations. Fruiting was as much explained by the effects of bioclimatic variability as by their large-scale spatial patterns. Temperature drove fruiting of autumnal ectomycorrhizal and saprotrophic groups as well as spring saprotrophic groups, while primary production and precipitation were major drivers for spring-fruiting ectomycorrhizal fungi. Species-specific phenology predictors were not stable, instead deviating from the overall mean. There is significant likelihood that further climatic change, especially in temperature, will impact fungal phenology patterns at large spatial scales. The ecological implications are diverse, potentially affecting food webs (asynchrony), nutrient cycling and the timing of nutrient availability in ecosystems.

Diversity of Chroogomphus (Gomphidiaceae, Boletales) in Europe, and typification of C. rutilus.

In this study, eight species of Chroogomphus are recognized from Europe: C. britannicus, C. aff. filiformis 1, C. fulmineus, C. cf. helveticus, C. mediterraneus, C. cf. purpurascens, C. rutilus, and C. subfulmineus. Different candidates for the application of the name C. rutilus are evaluated and the best fit to the description is selected; lecto- and epitypes are chosen to fix the name. Chroogomphus fulmineus and C. mediterraneus are also epitypified and a new species, C. subfulmineus, is described. The infrageneric classification is revised and a new subgenus Siccigomphus and three new sections, Confusi, Filiformes, and Fulminei are introduced. The former sections Chroogomphus and Floccigomphus are elevated to subgeneric level. Comparison of the ITS regions (nuc rDNA ITS1-5.8S-ITS2) of all species studied shows that there is a minimum interspecific difference of 1.5 %, with the exception of the two species belonging to sect. Fulminei which differ by a minimum of 0.9 %. Ecological specimen data indicate that species of Chroogomphus form basidiomes under members of Pinaceae, with a general preference for species of Pinus. Five European species have been recorded under Picea, while Abies and Larix have also been recorded as tree associates, although the detailed nutritional relationships of the genus, involving other suilloid fungi in particular, have yet to be fully clarified.

Beauveria medogensis sp. nov., a new fungus of the entomopathogenic genus from China.

Beauveria is among the most ubiquitous genera of entomopathogenic fungi throughout the world. A previously unknown species of the genus was recently discovered from a soil sample collected from Tibetan Plateau, China and is here described as new to science, B. medogensis sp. nov. The new species is distinguished from its closest relatives based on both morphological characterization and molecular phylogenetic analyses. Beauveria medogensis is characterized by globose to subglobose conidia, morphologically similar to some other species of in the genus, but was conclusively separated from those species in the phylogenetic analyses including sequences of four nuclear genes (RPB1, RPB2, TEF1 and Bloc). The new species was clustered in the analyses in a single terminal lineage which was grouped with B. australis sequences together as a sister clade to the B. brongniartii terminal clade. Although molecularly closely related, the new species is distinct morphologically from its closest sisters, B. australis and B. brongniartii, in producing globose to subglobose conidia rather than subglobose, broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid conidia or ellipsoidal to cylindrical conidia. As isolated from a soil sample, the entomopathogenicity of the new species has been confirmed using Helicoverpa armigera and Tenebrio molitor larvae.